Canadian Amateur Radio Basic Qualification Study Resources

Atoms: basic building blocks of everything

Molecules: groupings of atoms. Ex: Water (2 Hydrogen 1 Oxygen)

Nucleus is the centre of the Atom

Nucleus is positively charged

Nucleus contains protons (+) and neutrons

Electrons (-) circle the nucleus inside the atom in "shells"

Electrons are negatively charged

Electronics focuses on Valence Electrons (electrons in the outside shells that are capable of manipulation)

Current is the flow of electrons

Conductor is the Substance that electrons flow through

Coulomb (C) is large number of electron charge (6.28x10¹⁸)

Ampere (A) is a flow of 1 coulomb per second

Current is designated (I). Ex: I = 5A - current is 5Amps

Milliamperes (mA) 1000th of an Ampere

Microamperes (μA) is 1,000,000th of an Ampere

Electron Current - direction of the flow of electrons Neg to Positive

Conventional Current - current flows in the opposite direction of electron movement (this will apply later with transistors)

Voltage (V) is the work/pressure (not force) needed to move electrons

Volt is the unit we measure the pressure in

Voltage is measured with a voltmeter (E) Ex: E = 12V

Millivolts (mV) 1000th of a Volt

Microvolts (μV) is 1,000,000th of a Volt

Voltage is akin to pressure. Water (current) won't move through a pipe without pressure. Likewise, electrons won't move in a direction without voltage.

Voltage doesn't need a current to exist Ex: a full water tank

Voltage pressure is described as potential difference Ex: a water dam with higher water on one side. There is potential for water to flow down.

Batteries in Series: More voltage = more pressure = brighter light bulb

Batteries in Parallel: Same voltage as one battery, but bulb runs longer

As voltage decreases, so does lamp brightness because there is less pressure

Likewise too much voltage, too much will cause the bulb to explode

DC Voltage: one way, direct current Ex: 9V battery

AC Voltage: sine wave pattern, alternating current Ex: house power

Conductor substance that you want to push current through

Insulator a crappy conductor. Ex: rubber, glass, some plastics

Best conductors in order: silver, copper, aluminum

Gases of ionized molecules (plasmas) are excellent conductors Ex: lightning through ionized air

Tolerance is the maximum permissible variation

Larger the variance value, lower the tolerance

Ex: Resistor marked 100Ω with 10% tolerance is good 90-110

Smaller the variance value, the higher (closer) the tolerance

Tolerances on precision components are as close as ±0.1%

Resistance (R) is opposition to electron flow

Unit of resistance is Ohm(Ω)

Measured with Ohm meter

Larger resistances may be kΩ kilohms or megaohms MΩ

Specific Resistance - based on conductivity of the material Ex: Copper (good) vs Rubber (bad)

Length - resistance grows as conductor length increases Ex: blowing fuse with a long extension cord

Diameter - Resistance decreases as diameter increases Ex: bigger is better

Temperature - Resistance increases with temperature in most things. Semiconductors can be the opposite.

Device used to intentionally lower current flow

Resistors can only take so much current before they burn up

Watts (W) is the rating a resistor gets [Voltage x Current = Watts]

3 Kinds: Fixed, Tapped, Variable

Fixed: constant resistance

Made by layering carbon over ceramic core

Coloured bands around resistor indicate resistance value

Tapped: divided up into parts of resistance

These are uncommon

Variable: moving shaft/slider to change amount of resistance

Two kinds: Wirewound and Composition Variable

Wirewound: wire wrapped around high-heat insulating core

Composition: Baked on a form and wiping or rolling contact travels the resistive element to make a variable resistance Ex: knob or lever for volume control

Resistors are too small to write info on so they use colour band codes

Bands are: A B C D

A = first digit of resistance value

B = second digit of resistance value

C = Multiplier (number of zeroes following first 2 numbers)

D = Tolerance of the resistor

No fourth band means tolerance of ±20%

Violet = 7, Green = 5, Orange = 3 (zeroes), Gold = 5%

Conductance is the reciprocal of the resistance 1/R

Formerly known as the mho, now called siemens (S)

Conductance is abbreviated (G) in equations

Resitance of 10Ω has a conductance of 1/10 or 0.1 S

Substances with such low conductance, no current can flow through them

Insulators prevent conductive wire from touching anything else (causing a short or altering the amount of current through the wire)

Magnets have magnetic fields around them

The field emanates from the south to north pole of the magnet

Magnets: opposite ends attract, whilst likes repel

Electric current can flow through a magnetic field by:

• Moving the conductor through the magnetic field
  
• Moving the magnetic field around the conductor
  
• Moving both conductor and magnetic field
  

When the moving conductor is perpendicular to the lines of force of the magnetic field, the electric current is at a maximum.

Two kinds of magnets:

• Permanent - made of iron or steel alloys
  
• Temporary - exist only whilst maintained by external forces
  

DC is current that flows in one direction only

Friction: rubbing 2 surfaces together can knock valence electrons free Ex: Static Electricity

Heat: Thermionic emission

Pressure: some types of crystals when pressurized will emit electrons. Microphones convert sound energy to electrical energy using the piezoelectric effect

Magnetism: magnetic field, this is used in generators and alternators

Photo-electricity: energy from light photons Ex: Solar Panels

Chemical action: batteries where chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.

Electrostatic Field: also makes current

Cells are electrochemical cells where chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.

Battery is a group of cells connected together but used interchangeably

A cell consists of 2 conductors called electrodes immersed in electrolyte

Ions are the charge carriers in the electrolyte

Shorting a battery is always dangerous. Don't be a dunce.

Cells can be connected in 2 ways: Series and Parallel

Parallel - negative terminals are joined negative terminals while positive terminals are joined to positive terminals. Voltage is equal that of one compenent cell but the current is the sum of all the cells. Cells in parallel = one big cell

Series - more common config, Negative terminal connected to positive terminal in next cell. Voltage is the sum of all cells while current is that of one cell.

Primary cells - can't be recharged

Secondary cells - can be recharged

Important Battery characteristics:

• Shelf-life: how long it will keep it's potential whilst not being used
  
• Internal resistance: limits max current available and increases with battery age/electrolyte drying out
  
• Capacity - value of current over time, usually given in amp-hours (Ah) or milliampere-hours (mAh)
  
• Cell voltage - voltage cell can produce
  

Popular cells:

• Carbon zinc, Alkaline, Mercury, Nickel-Cadmium, Lead-Acid, Nickel-Metal Hydride, Lithium
  

Circuit a path along which current can flow

Closed Circuit: complete electric circuit that current can flow through when voltage is applied

Open Circuit: incomplete circuit either on purpose (switch) or accident (break)

Short Circuit: abnormal connection of relatively low resistance between 2 points in a circuit

Current that flows one way and then back the opposite, like ocean tide

These complete alternations per second is called *frequencyo

In Canada, this is 60 times per second or 60 hertz

Hertz is one cycle per second, abbreviated Hz

The AC transitions form a sine wave: ∿ as viewed on an oscilloscope

Generator consists of many loops/turns of wire around a soft iron core

The core spins through a magnetic force. The core is called the armature and the magnet is called the field

The alternating aspect happens as the core rotates between perpendicular and parallel to the magnetic field. As it continues to turn it cuts the magnetic lines of force in the opposite direction, inducing opposite polarity voltage

Y = sin X

X: elapsed time, Y: voltage of the wave

Sine Wave (∿) contains only 1 frequency with no harmonics. It's a single note in audio.

A harmonic is any sine wave with a whole step multiple of the wave frequency (no half steps or fractions)

Phase - waves are in-phase when they are the same frequency and reach their peaks and zero crossings at the same time.

For AC to have the same effect as DC, the AC voltage must be 1.414 times more than DC.

AC voltage that is equivalent to DC is called the root mean square or RMS value

RMS E_RMS = 0.707 x E_Peak Eqn 2-1

Example: House Power. 120VAC from a house outlet, it's actually 120V X 1.414 = 170V.

AC voltages are generally referred to as the RMS values

Multimeters are your friends. Get one. Now.

E = I x R [Voltage (E) = Current (I) x Resistance (R)]

Memorizing these equations is dumb. You can solve Ohm based problems with the Ohm Triangle:

You can solve for whatever variable you need by covering it over with your finger

Note: All voltages have to be expressed in volts only. Convert from millivolts, microvolts and kilovolts. Likewise all currents have to be in Amps and resistances must be in ohms. Convert to standard form BEFORE doing any calculations

Main take away here is to convert volt values to volts and ohm values to ohms.

Resistors in Series:

• Total resistance is the SUM of resistances.
  
• Total voltage is the SUM of the voltage drops across all resistors.
  
• Total current is the same
  

Resistors in Parallel:

• Total resistance is 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 …
  
• Or, you can use R_t = (R₁xR₂)/(R₁+R₂)
  
• Total voltage is the same as the applied voltage
  
• Total current is the sum of the individual currents
  

The sum of all voltage drops must add up to the total voltage applied to the circuit

Energy = ability to do work

Work = any time force causes motion

Potential Energy = a compressed spring // A battery is the same thing

For the battery to do work, electrons have to flow from the battery against a resistance

The rate that this is done is called Power

Basic unit of power is the watt (W)

The following diagram replaces Ohm's triangle

Resistors are rated on how much power they can dissipate as heat

Rule of thumb: use a resistor that is 50% or 100% MORE than the calculated value to err on the side of caution

Try doing these math problems for fun at your local library!

Current running through a conductor creates a magnetic field. Greater the current, greater the magnetic field

Left Hand Rule: place left hand on the wire with the thumb pointing in the direction of electron flow from negative to positive. Wrap fingers around the wire, fingertips will be pointing the direction of the magnetic field. This can be thought of as concentric circles with the planes at right angles to the direction of electron flow.

You need to wrap wire into a coil in order to increase the magnetic field. This becomes a solenoid coil

The coil in which the electric current is induced is called an inductor

The more turns per unit of length, the stronger the magnetic field

The longer the coil, the more total turns creates a stronger field

Smaller diameters create stronger fields

A solenoid with an iron core in it is an electromagnet

Inductors make use of stored energy in a magnetic field and has inductance

Inductance (L) opposes any change in current value

When voltage is applied, it takes time to "charge up" the magnetic field and level off; also in reverse

The unit of the inductance is the henry (H) and values from nanohenries (nH) to a few hundred henries are routinely seen

When a field reverses, a reverse voltage can be produced

AC flows one way, then the other. As current flows, a magnetic field grows. With AC, this field grows and collapses.

Self-inductance results when AC flows through a conductor. The AC creates a back EMF.

Inductors will affect the flow of AC current, but don't really affect DC after the initial DC current flows through.

Inductors have a value of inductance just like resistors have a value of resistance.

Inductors are also known as coils and chokes. These are used to "choke" any unradiated RF signal that would otherwise come back down your transmission line from your antenna back into your radio.

Varying the coil inductance is an essential part of tuning circuits.

Practically this involves: changing the number of turns around a toroid, changing or removing the toroid all together, adding switches that tap only parts of the coil at a time etc.

Remember that Inductors and Resistors are calculated the same way in circuits.

Inductance is noted Henries (H), Millihenries (mH), Microhenries (μH) and Nanohenries (nH).

Inductors in Series: Add the totals. Ex: 2 + 3 = 5H

Inductors in Parallel: 1/inductance + 1/inductance. Ex: 1/3 (.333) + 1/6 (.166) + 1/9 (.111) = 1.64H

Two coils that share the same magnetic field are said to be magnetically coupled

Through this coupling, energy can be transferred

Current through one coil can induce current in another. This is inductance. The closer they are the greater the inductance

This inductance forms a transformer (usually only used with AC power)

AC power delivery side is the primary. The receiving side is the secondary.

The number of turns in the coils affects voltage. If the secondary has more turns than the other this is a step-up transformer. Reverse is a step-down transformer. If they are equal it is a one-to-one transformer.

Purposes of Transformers:

• Isolate a circuit. As in one-to-one case.
  
• Raising/Lowering voltages
  
• Matching impedances (discussed later)
  
• Transformers get hot during operation
  
• Energy losses are due to:
  
• Eddy Currents - heat build up in the coil's core. They combat this by slicing the core up into fine sheets and separating them to break the conductivity/lessen the loss to heat.
  
• Windings Resistance - there is some copper resistance in the copper itself
  
• Magnetic Leakage - magnetic force may not 100% line up with the secondary, hence it "leaks"
  
• Hysteresis - the iron core gets magnetized and must be de-magnetized each AC cycle.
  

Power Relationship: P = EI

Toroid Form - transformer looks like a donut, has advantage of no shielding required

Capacitor is electrical device that can store electrical energy (like a battery but stores in an electric field vs chemical)

It's like a water holding tank that continues to flow water even if a water supply is intermittent. It helps level out power supply problems

Capacitor is made from 2 conductive plates separated by an insulating material (dielectric)

Capacitance is measured in farads (F). It is abbreviated (C) in a formula.

A Farad is pretty huge so they are often denoted in:

• microfarad (μF) {millionth}
  
• nanofarad (nF) {one thousandth of a millionth 0.001 μF} [older resources: micromicrofarad μμF instead of nF]
  
• picofarad (pF) {one millionth of a milltionth 0.001 nF or 0.000001 μF}
  

Variable capacitors exist in various kinds and forms

the bigger the capacitor, capacitance increases

distance between plates - closer means more charge flows, further is less

dielectrical material - the dialectrical constant K denotes differences in air, glass, mica, etc.

Key Point: calculating Capacitance is OPPOSITE to inductance and resistance.

Capacitors in Series: CT = C₁ x C₂ / C₁ + C₂. Ex: 2 x 4 / 2+4 = 8/6 = 1.33μF

Capacitors in Parallel: Sum of capacitances. Ex: 2 + 3 - 5μF

Use the right voltage

Reactance = opposition to the flow of Alternating Current. Does not affect DC at all.

This resistance is expressed in ohms but no energy is dissipated in a reactance. Energy stored always returns to the circuit

the opposition offered to AC by an inductor

measured in ohms

As inductance increases, inductive reactance increases. Reverse also true.

As AC frequency increases, inductive reactance increases. Reverse also true.

Capacitive reactance is the opposition offered to AC in a capacitor

measured in ohms

As the AC alternates, the voltage rises and drops with each cycle

As circuit capacitance increases, capacitive reactance decreases and vice versa

As AC frequency increases, capacitive reactance decreases and vice versa Ex: AC at 60Hz has more resistance than at 400Hz

One main use of capacitors is to block or couple current in a circuit. Ex: AC can be coupled in a circuit whilst DC is blocked, separating the components

Impedance is when a circuit has both resistance and reactance to AC current

Impedance (Z) is measured in ohms

Calculating Impedance is ridiculously hard and out of the scope of this study

Impedance matching is important concept for microphones, antennas, amps, etc. Maximum power transfer between two devices happens when:

• input (Ex: Microphone) has same impedance in ohms as the circuit it's plugged into and vice versa for output (Ex: Speaker)
  
• Low impedance circuits should not be connected to high impedance circuits and vice versa
  
• Transformers are often used to match impedances
  

Resonance happens when inductive reactance X_L = capacitive reactance X_C. They cancel each other out and have a resonant frequency. This is especially applicable to antennas

You can tune a circuit by:

• Varying the AC frequency
  
• Varying Inductance and/or Capacitance
  

Tuning results in a circuit passing energy back and forth at minimum loss (Makes a circuit efficient)

Remember: As frequency increases inductive reactance X_L INCREASES whilst capacitive reactance X_C DECREASES

When X_L = X_C you have reached resonant frequency (a happy and productive antenna)

In a resonant circuit, energy is stored in the capacitor's electric field and in the inductor's magnetic field alternatively.

Resonant current encountering resistance has the effect of broadening the band frequencies

Q (quality factor) - how effective a tuned circuit will be in selecting only a narrow band of frequencies

Q: the ratio of the centre frequency of the circuit to the bandwidth

Anything that removes energy from a resonant circuit will reduce Q

A note on Light Speed: Radio waves and light are part of the electromagnetic spectrum as such both travel at the speed of light 300 million meters/second. This is a universal constant known as c.

The equation f x λ = c represents relationship of (f) frequency x (λ) wavelength equals the speed of light. As frequency increases, wavelength decreases and vice versa

Here's a wave: ∿

Waves consist of amplitude and frequency

Amplitude is the amount the wave troughs and crests move up and down (Ex: how much energy a wave has, bigger is more)

Frequency (Hz) is how many times a wave alternates between trough and crest in a given time period

Ex: 100 complete cycles in 5 seconds is a frequency of 20Hz 100/5=20

Wavelength (λ) = distance travelled during one wave cycle

Waves can be ridiculously long to super short

Waves can be seen with an oscilloscope

EM for short, they are radiated out at the speed of light 300,000,000m/sec

Radio waves are from 3kHz to 3000GHz in the electromagnetic spectrum

Most Amateur Radio frequencies are expressed in megahertz MHz (millions of cycles per second) and wavelength in meters

Radio bands can be converted into frequency and vice versa. Ex: 80m band is 3.75MHz. We calculate that f = 300/λ or 300/80 = 3.75MHz. To find the band, it's the same thing λ = 300/146.5 = 2.05m. All units must be in MHz and meters for them to work.

kHz (kilohertz) to MHz: 1050kHz/1000 = 1.050MHz

MHz to kHz: 14.100MHz x 1000 = 14100kHz

Radio is a chunk of the electromagnetic spectrum from 3kHz to 3000GHz

Radio is denoted in two ways: bands and frequencies

Amateur Radio service is allocated in all of these except VLF

A band is a group of frequencies described by a number roughly close to the wavelength of the group

FM Radio: 88MHz-108MHz (VHF) AM Radio: 540kHz-1600kHz (MF)

You can view the entire crazy Canadian Spectrum Allocations at this link

The radio spectrum is packed with users. The World Administrative Radio Conference are the kingpins who decide "who gets what." Amateurs need to play by the rules or face the Wrath of Khan.

There are various modes that will be talked about later, as well as sub-bands.

You can visualize how each of the Amateur Bands are "divvied up" into specific uses/modes and possibilities. The following image is of the 2m band:

Check out the Radio Amateurs of Canada Website about the band plans and upcoming changes.

On local levels, there are councils who manage Repeaters and allocate bandwidth and frequencies among their members

You may be tempted to go rogue and put up your own repeater outside of dialogue with a local council. This is frowned upon and you may be shot. Just kidding! But you may be sanctioned/lose operating privileges. #HamsPlayByTheRules

ISM is Industrial, Scientific, Medical and they share several Amateur Bands

Goal was to provide a space for researchers and industrials users to operate radio for testing purposes. There is a bit of overlap in the 33cm and 13cm bands.

Interference from these and other things can be a pain. Bluetooth, smart meters, baby monitors, cordless phones (lol), Microwave ovens (they operate at 2.45GHz the resonant frequency of a water molecule{who knew!?}).

Take away nugget: the exam has at least 2 questions have different answers about partial of fully ISM sharing.

Propagation: how waves get from point A to point

Electrons oscillating through a conductor (antenna wire) produce electric and magnetic fields at the same time at 300 million mps

Inverse square relationship: decrease of signal strength over distance Ex: a signal 2KM from its source will only be 1/4 as strong as it was 1KM from the source

Modern antennas can perceive even very weak signals

Kinds of Waves:

Waves are depicted in 3D drawings with Electrical Field (E) being the vertical axis and Magnetic Field (H) being the horizontal axis. This is called orthogonal (right angles to each other)

Vertical antennas will propagate vertically whilst Horizontal antennas will do it horizontally hence (E) might be vertical or horizontal.

Circular polarization: Here the wave rotates so (E) is also changing while the wave propagates. This is one class of elliptically polarized waves.

Space Waves: a wave leaving antenna at an upward angle/reflected upward from ground

Ground Waves: follows straight line from antenna or earth's surface, depending on frequency. Vertically polarized.

Direct Wave: (Tropospheric) a wave entirely propagated within the Troposphere (region between earth and ionosphere 10-20km up from earth's surface). Higher VHF and UHF bands almost always Direct Waves.

Surface Wave: (Ground waves) Lower HF band use surface waves during daylight hours.

Sky Wave: a wave propagated towards the ionosphere. Also called Ionospheric Waves

Marconi: in 1901 he bounced a radio wave from England to Newfoundland. Nobody knew how. But he bounced it off the ionosphere

Ionosphere is 50-400km above earth's surface. It gets hit by the sun's UV light and this dislodges electrons from the gas molecules. This is called Ionization

Ions: atoms that are positively or negatively charged

Ions can become neutral again by recombining with free electrons

Both of these processes happen every day. Ionization is greatest just afternoon and in the middle of summer. Oppositely, recombination is greatest just before sunrise and the winter.

Four Layers of the Ionosphere:

The layers are nebulous without strict borders. F/F2 layer is the most densely ionized due to sun proximity

Waves leave the antenna and refract off the ionosphere (changing direction). This change happens as the wave passes through different mediums (change speed). Ex: bike tire on sand vs asphalt

Skip Zone: (Zone of Silence) as waves refract and come back to earth, there is an area where no signal is heard. This is the skip zone (farthest point reached by the ground wave and nearest point at which refracted sky waves first come back to earth)

Multi-hop Propagation: Wave bounces off ionosphere and earth's surface multiple times

Skip Distance depends on:

If conditions are changing whilst the wave is in transit, the wave may change angles. This is called fading

Effects on HF by solar radiation:

EM waves may have polarizations changed randomly due to Faraday Rotation

Radio wave intensity/strength is called field strength

Attenuation is the reduction in intensity/strength of a signal/wave

Absorption by the ionosphere can affect signal strength as can the wave frequency. A 20m signal suffers 4x more absorption than a 10m signal

Multipath Propagation - the study guide doesn't define this but it is a phenomenon where a radio signal reaches an antenna by 2 or more paths

Selective Fading results from independent variance in the frequencies or phase of a transmission. The wider the bandwidth the more pronounced this is.

S-Meter gives a relative indication of signal strength

Fading signals may be caused by:

There are a lot of ways waves can be messed with during propagation. And, it's all in a continuous state of flux, giving everything a random aspect. Things might work and then the same thing might not work next time. It's just how it is.

Scatter Propagation (Scatter) can actually cause a signal to be heard in a zone of silence

Clouds of ions may exist and mess with signal strength

Stronger waves may drown out the scatter signals

Scatter starts at 2.5MHz or higher. Amateurs encounter scatter most in the VHF and beyond

Scatter has 3 modes:

When all 3 of these make it to the receiver there is lots of fluttering, wavering and fading and other crazy crap

The sun messes with radio transmissions the most out of anything

There's a 22 year cycle that causes differing levels of ultraviolet light leading to higher and lesser levels of ionization

The ultraviolet radiation seems to flux over periods of 11 years known as sunspots

Sunspots are magnetic vortexes in plasma that make up the sun's surface and can be 100,000km in diameter

When they blow, millions of tons of ionized particle get chucked into space. Known as Solar Coronal Mass Ejection

These create the northern lights and also craptastic propagation in the HF bands

Solar flares are short lived (~2 hours) & called Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance (SID) and effect HF signals

These solar storms cause fading out of radio signals during the day and can last several days. They are more frequent as sunspot numbers decline

They mess with refraction and signals that would normally bounce permeate the ionosphere and go off into space

When sun spot activity is high, frequencies up to 40MHz or higher (HF and VHF) are usable for long distance communicating

People monitor this to the mucho. Check this website for more info: Radio Station WWV

And here's a link to the Canadian version: CHU bacca the Canookie

The name for lightning, refraction, reflection, ducting and other weather-based disturbances. Ex: Static

This whole endeavour is one giant crap shoot. No wonder people invented digital communication! lol

Propagation forecasts exist, much like the weather forecast. Here is some terminology:

The F layer, using the MUF, will skip ~4000km. E layer ~2500km

Rules o' Thumb:

Communications in the VHF bands (direct waves, line of sight) do allow for communications beyond the horizon.

There are 7 conditions that affect VHF propagation:

VHF/UHF bands are primarily used for local comms. They can be used for DX but it's harder.

It's a particular mode of sky wave propagation. You use this when you need comms in the skip zone but may not be able to use a ground wave.

Signal goes nearly vertical providing the working frequency doesn't exceed the critical frequency and will be reflected down in a 150km-300km circle around your location. It's pretty reliable for these kind of shortish range comms.

A Horizontal Dipole supported about 1/4 λ above effective ground will be optimal as the radiation angle is near 90^o

Horizontal Antennas with heights down to 0.1 λ will work.

Most reliable NVIS frequencies are 1.8MHz and 8MHz

Good technique if repeater systems go down. Viable alternative to VHF/UHF and with longer range.

Time signals can show whether a band is open. An "open band" means that it will support long range comms due to ionospheric reflections happening on the band's frequencies/favourable directions. The "band is dead" is just the opposite. Conditions suck for long distance comms.

SWL (Short Wave Listener) guides list all the world-wide time signals by frequency and location. Check out DX Info Centre for more info.

Beacons do the same thing as time signals. It's continuous, regular interval (3 minutes) radio transmissions on certain frequencies in CW.

These transmissions consist of the beacon's call sign at 22 wpm using 100W of power. Then 4 dashes, 1st at 100W, 2nd: 10W, 3rd: 1W, 4th: 0.1W

The idea is to gauge roughly how much power it will take to make contact with a station at/near the beacon's location.

Ex: if you can hear OA4B in Peru transmitting at 0.1W on a particular band, then you know that band is open to South America

Austrian physicist Christian Doppler in 1842 discovered a change in frequency of a wave for an observer moving relative to its source.

Doppler Shift is the physical incarnation of the Doppler Effect.

Ex: Ambulance siren from afar, passing you, and receding away from you. The frequency is higher during the approach, identical whilst passing you, lower during the recession away.

This kind of movement has to do with satellite operations/cross-band repeaters

The Doppler Shift depends on the relative geometry of the transmitting and receiving stations in respect to a passing satellite. This is why you need a separation from receiver frequency and transmitter frequency.

Once you have a connection, you don't want to change anything because the other operator will not know where you went!

Wire line that RF Energy is efficiently transferred from your transmitter to your antenna

They have input (electricity goes in) and output ends (load end)

An optimal line has:

There are always resistive/dielectric losses (aka: no perfect transmission)

Power is most effectively transferred between a source and a load if both have the same characteristic impedance

In a transmission line there are 2 transfers. 1) Transmitter to Line, 2) Line to Antenna

Antennas must be matched to transmission line to function properly

Mismatches create high standing wave ratios or SWR. This wastes power and may cause component damage

A transmission line is composed of 2 conductors. This arrangement creates a distributed capacitance.

It also creates an inductance because of the length of the conductors

This resulting circuit offers reactance to any AC current in the line

Capacitor reactance and an inductor vary in opposite directions with changes in frequency. The apparent impedance of the line stays pretty much the same over a range of frequencies. This is Characteristic Impedance or the Surge Impedance of the line

Characteristic Impedance is determined by the physical dimensions of the line and the relative positions of the conductors

Transmission line will appear infinitely long if it is terminated with a load equal to the its characteristic impedance

Characteristic Impedance is an AC effect only, has nothing to do with DC resistance of the line

Power is not dissipated by Characteristic Impedance

Copper losses are inefficiencies of the (most likely) copper transmission line

Skin Effect arises at higher frequencies because the current can't pass through the whole wire. Instead it hangs out near the surface, increasing the effective resistance to the flow of current.

Parallel-Conductor feed lines:

These are rad because they handle high SWR and have lower losses than coaxial cable, especially for VHF/UHF.

They suck for the reasons mentioned in 1. above.

Impedance from balanced lines is much higher than that of modern transceivers so a impedance-matching device is necessary.

Everyone pretty much uses Coax because it's less of a pain.

Example of 300 ohm Twin Lead

Coax is the bee's knees. It has a centre conductor covered by an insulating layer called the dielectric, which is inside an outer conductor called the shield of braid.

Coax is flexible, can be buried, is protected from conductors like metal towers.

Characteristic impedance depends on ratio of the diameter of the outer conductor to the diameter of the inner conductor and the dialectrical constant of the material used to space the 2 conductors. There's a formula for this.

For VHF and above, use hardline or Heliax®. These are necessary for UHF to keep losses to a minimum.

It's expensive stuff and it's heavy and hard to bend because the shield layer is solid copper instead of flexible braid.

All transmission lines are subject to propagation delay. This is the velocity factor. The signal goes down the line through the capacitors and inductors and this takes time. A velocity factor of .66 means that the EM energy in the line is 66% of the speed it would be propagated in free space.

Gains and losses are expressed in Decibels dB

Common Types of transmission cable for Amateurs:

50Ω is a common impedance that most transceivers can match. Whee!

Cross section view of a coaxial cable

A few examples of different coaxial cables

Most common amateur coax connector is the PL259 male

It connects to RG213/U (and others via adapters)

It connects to the SO239 female connector on the transceiver

NOTE Contextually these are called UHF Connectors BUT IT DOESN'T MEAN ULTRA HIGH FREQUENCY. Here it means union high frequency and can only be used for low-frequency devices. 2m (144-148MHz) is their upper limit.

BNC Connectors are found in smaller equipment like 2m hand held transceivers. But have largely been replaced with SMA series connectors.

N Connectors are weather proof, outdoor connectors and work well from HF through UHF. It's a constant impedance connector.

Here is a cross section of paired N Connectors, just for kicks!

It's the only easily available connector for 50MHz+

All outdoor wire connections should be wrapped with electrical tape to keep water out/err on the side of less potential issues

Constant impedance is important to match the cable and prevent SWR bumps.

For soldering your own connections, a 150W soldering iron is baby bear. You don't want to not melt the solder or melt the cable. Twist on connectors don't hold up well.

Nicking, cutting, coiling too tightly are all bad, mmmmmkay?

There will always be line losses. The more you lose, the less goes to the Antenna

Every time you double the length of the coax, you double the amount of signal you lose. Shortest possible runs are the best.

The higher the frequency, the higher the losses.

For VHF+, hard line is recommended over coax. Also Waveguide is used for microwave.

Buying the best line you can afford is good: maximum braid shield and non-contaminating jacket (UV resistant insulation). Used coax is not generally a good investment as it may be degraded.

Baluns are deployed to join balanced and unbalanced lines.

Etymologically, Bal is balanced, Un is unbalanced, hence Balun! #TheMoreYouKnow

This is a toroid balun (ceramic core). They are frequency agnostic and can handle all HF Amateur bands.

Common 4:1 baluns are used to match 75Ω coax to a 300Ω parallel conductor line. This is actually a balun and auto-transformer on a single core.

Baluns also prevent distortion in antenna patterns. If the antenna coax feed is close the antenna, it can cause a current to flow on the outside of the line shield (not to be confused with the current running on the inside of the line where it should be). The line then acts like its own antenna, radiating a signal which will mess with your intended signal. Baluns will prevent this spurious signal.

Standing Wave Ratio is the measure of the effectiveness of the coupling between 2 transmission lines or between your line and antenna. If the impedance is the same, Robert is your Dad's brother.

If the impedances aren't the same, your signal gets reflected back to the source transmitter. This reflected energy has a fixed phase relative to the incoming power and creates a standing wave.

You measure this with a SWR meter (more on this in Chapter 11).

In the old days, this would blow crap up. Modern solid state transceivers account for this and have a SWR sensing circuit to cut back the power.

Antenna Tuners are one possible way to cancel unwanted reactance. 1:1 ratio is the best impedance match. Anything less is uncivilized.

There are calculations and formulas for this.

If your transceiver will accept mismatches without blowing up, then SWR isn't a big deal.

An Antenna is a device that 1) has gain compared to a defined standard. 2) Has some defined and repeatable directivity. 3) Can be fed by your transmitter in a known and calculable way.

Pushing current always generates an electric field (E)

And, there is always an accompanying magnetic field (H)

An antenna is a wire carrying an alternating current

Electrons don't actually go flying out the end of said wire into space

The moving of the electrons back and forth generate the H and E fields

Both E & H are transverse waves (right angles to direction of travel) [Ex: Sideways motion of a slinky]

Both E & H are perpendicular/right angles to each other

Both are in phase, matching in speed/intensity/frequency

Electromagnetic Waves travel at the speed of light in free space (300,000,000 m/s). This changes if the wave passes through something

Polarization of the EW follows the direction. Ex: Horizontal Antennas will have Horizontal E field. Vertical Antennas will have Vertical E Field.

Circular Polarization is also possible where the wave travels like a bolt being turned. This known as an elliptically polarized wave.

Antennas do 2 things:

Antennas are basically analog modems from the 90s internet days (lol)

Isotropic Radiator: a antenna that is ideal/perfect and uniformly radiates energy in all directions like an old-timey incandescent light bulb. These are unicorns and don't exist in reality. Fake-News Antenna.

Elementary Dipole/Doublet: Another fake antenna existing only in the realm of theory. Not to be confused with a Dipole Antenna that is a real antenna.

Antenna Gain: Effectiveness of a directional antenna compared to a standard. The book doesn't explain this very clearly.

Antenna Impedance: The book is extremely convoluted here. Basically, it's how well your transmitter and the antenna match when it comes to current, voltage and reactance - or how poorly.

Antenna Impedance is complicated and can be resistive or a mix of resistance and reactance (complex)

If an Antenna is resonant, then the impedance will be pure resistance

If an Antenna is off-resonance then there will be reactance mixed in

Antenna Impedance is made up of Radiation Resistance (Ro) and Ohmic Resistance (R).

Radiation Resistance is an imaginary resistor, which if real, would dissipate the same power the antenna is radiating.

Energy Loss due to ohmic resistance are also called I²R losses

There is a formula for calculating this gong show.

Directivity: measure of the radiation pattern of the antenna. As the pattern becomes narrower/sharper, directivity increases. The more directivity an antenna has, the more gain it has as well.

Polarization: The E Field of the electromagnetic wave in respect to earth's surface.

Faraday Rotation: the rotation of the plane of polarization when an electromagnetic wave passes through a magnetic field. Earth's magnetic field and fields in the ionosphere can both cause Faraday rotation.

Bandwidth: Broad-band (wide range of frequencies) and Narrow-band (small range of frequencies)

Gain: The measure of the ability of an antenna to concentrate a radio signal into a beam. The book has unintelligible gibberish at this point.

Antenna theory is based on:

You always lose some energy due to radiative effects when you pass current through a line.

A resonant antenna exactly supports a standing wave from end to end.

Charge in a conductor moves slower than the associated electromagnetic field. Because of this, the resonant length of the conductor will be shorter than the free-space wavelength.

Ideally, the antenna has to be a multiple of a half a wavelength at a radiated frequency.

Voodoo exists to allow a 1/4 wavelength antenna to work

The active or radiating part of the antenna is called the radiator or radiating element.

Radiator length is affected by the diameter to length ratio of the conductor and end effect is caused by the loading effect of the capacitance of the insulators required to support a wire antenna and the wire looped around them.

Below 30MHz a shortening factor of .95 will work good.

There are formulas for calculating all this to your hearts content.

The higher the frequency, the shorter the antenna.

The lower the frequency, the longer the antenna.

As you radiate energy in the antenna, it will take on a shape.

It is important to note that the patterns are happening in 3 dimensions. Most graphic depictions in books have 2 top down views (horizontal and vertical) to try and illustrate the shape of the pattern.

The more gain, the more focused/beam-like the signal will become

Ex: Incandescent Edison bulb (going everywhere like a light bomb) vs a Laser beam (very focused in one direction)

If an antenna is near (10λ) the electrical ground, the vertical plane pattern will be modified by the reflections from the ground.

This distortion due to ground bounce creates a ghost antenna called an image antenna and it makes the real/intended signal tilt skyward.

The extent of the distortion has to do with the height of the antenna above the ground.

A horizontally polarized antenna must be mounted 1/2λ above the ground surface if directivity is important

Design is based on bandwidth, directivity and gain, all with various trade offs

Simple Antenna: One element attached to a feed line Ex: Dipole, Inverted Vee, Marconi.

Parasitic Array: Multiple elements but only one driven element. Ex: Yagi-Uda (Yagi) and quad

Driven Element: Connected to and receives power from the feed line. Ex: Log-Periodic

Broadcast Antenna: Several elements driven in differing phase relationships Ex: AM Broadcast

Dipoles are cheap and easy to make and the most practical between 80m-20m bands

The 1/2λ dipole is the most basic antenna that most other designs are based on

It's 1/2λ total and each side is 1/4λ for a particular frequency

The feed point is in the middle. For long dipoles, there are insulators on the end that act as supports.

The end of any resonant antenna is a high voltage point dangerous to people, animals and a liger which is bred for its skills in magic.

Dipole impedance is 73-75Ω

HF bands copper wire can be used for the dipole. VHF&UHF are usually aluminum or copper rod, supported from the middle without end insulators

Ice and Wind can break soft copper wire. AWG #14 or #12 is recommended for 40m or 80m dipoles. Over-engineering is always better.

You can make a dipole physically shorter by using loading coils.

Loading coils will be smaller (fewer turns) if installed near the center (high current point). But they have less affect on the pattern and efficiency when nearer to the end. 2/3 from the center to the end is the best compromise.

Inverted Vee antenna solves the problems of supporting dipoles to withstand rain and ice and is a variation of the 1/2λ dipole.

Some evidence suggests this is a better design for HF as some of the signal produced is vertically polarized.

The angle at the apex should be as close to 90^o as possible, but the range of 90^o-120^o should be fine. It will have antenna impedance of about 50Ω

This is usually fed with coax cable and should use a balun.

Dipoles and Inverted Vees are single-band antennas. A solution is the multiple band dipole.

This design uses separated, individual conductors cut to length for each band.

Trap Dipoles also attempt to solve the problem of having to have multiple antennas. They are better than the multi band dipole because they have separators in the radiators called "traps".

They are placed in series with quarter wavelength radiating elements.

A trap is just a coil of wire (inductor) connected in parallel with a capacitor.

Traps act like a switch that connects or disconnects a section of the antenna as you operate on different frequencies.

Ex: Whilst operating on the 30m band, the trap presents a high impedance to the signal and block/trap the progress of the signal past the trap. However, whilst operating on the 40m band, the traps present little impedance. The signal flows through the trap and is included as part of the signal. Hence, the traps need to be tuned for resonant frequency. This is done using a grid dip meter.

You can add traps for other frequencies and create a trap-based multi-band antenna.

Traps do not have a large effect on either the pattern or efficiency of the antenna.

This is an antenna for balanced/twin lead feed line with honkin' impedances of 150, 300 and 600Ω!

A 1/2λ dipole is a full-wave folded back on itself so that it is 1/2λ in length.

This antenna has a broader bandwidth than a wire dipole. Increasing the cross-sectional surface area of an antenna increases it's bandwidth.

This is often used for VHF/UHF and should be used with a balun.

AKA long wire or random wire antenna

This antenna should be long and high as possible

It radiates well on all HF bands

It can be strung around a lot or through attic rafters (with insulators)

A Tuner must be used as the line impedance most definitely won't be 50Ω needed by most HF transceivers

The downside is you usually get RF feedback and they are difficult to tune if it is less than 3/4λ at its lowest frequency

It also has high voltages on the antenna and in the shack at the feed point, making extra care needed not to become a fried meat sack

Vertical Antennas are omni-directional in their radiation pattern in the horizontal plane. In the vertical plane, a vertical radiator 1/4λ long over perfect ground will have its main lobe on the horizon. a 5/8λ is a good choice for maximum propagation.

Extensively used for non-directional communications.

They are good for DX (long distance) operations.

They are usually noisier as most man-made noise is vertically polarized. This is more apparent on lower bands like 160 or 80m

The trick with Vertical Antennas is that poorly conducting ground can mess with the wave propagation. Generally speaking, the ground is almost always poor at conducting. There are a few work-arounds to this:

Radials are arrays of 0.2λ wires or rods originating at the feed point. They form a more efficient and predictable ground. General consensus is that a minimum of 4 1/4λ radial wires per band, with up to 16 preferred for Amateurs.

A counterpoise is a system of radial wires mounted up from the ground on short spacers. This system is capacitively coupled to the ground to avoid I²R antenna losses to poorly conducting ground.

A 1/4λ vertical radiator worked against ground is called a Marconi antenna.

Radiation resistance is higher on a longer antenna.

For mobile VHF/UHF frequencies, the 5/8λ Grounded Vertical antenna gives better horizontal plane field strength. When mounted in the centre of the roof of a vehicle, the vehicle body becomes an excellent ground plane.

These are essentially a insulating tube with a 1/4λ coax line fed through it. Has impedance around 75Ω.

Good for DX on 80 or 160M.

These are complicated and require more nerd-level expertise than we can allocate right now.

These have a single driven element and one or more director or reflector elements.

Parasitic Element: receives power through coupling to another element in proximity to it. These can be director or reflectors.

Reflector Element: always behind the signal source/driven element. Reflector is 5% longer than the driven element. These distort the normal radiation pattern of the dipole and push the major lobe back towards the driven element.

Director Element: always in front of the signal source. It is 5% shorter than the driven element. It produces a major lobe in the horizontal plane toward the parasitic director.

Front-to-Back Ratio: Power gain in this type of antenna is the same as an equivalent increase in transmitter power. It also works like a mini-booster in receiving signals too. The shape reduces interference/undesired signals.

Yagi-Uda: The yagi as it is known are good for HF through the VHF range.

They range in complexity from 2 elements (1 driven, 1 reflector) to 4 or 5 elements, or 10+ elements in VHF.

It's very popular for frequencies above 14MHz. Anything below 14MHz they have to be honkin' huge making them awkward to manoeuvre, adjust and also for weather reasons.

Designing Yagis are best left up to computer modelling as they are complicated.

The beam width, gain, bandwidth and impedance are all determined by the length and spacing of the elements.

A Yagi with high gain (narrow bandwidth) and very high front to back ratio will have poor bandwidth. Improving the bandwidth always decreases the gain.

Mono-Banders: People with loads of real estate to have a separate Yagi for each frequency.

You can gain more gain by doubling up an antenna. Doubling gains you a gain of 3dB. If a Yagi has a gain of 8dB, then 2 of them will give a gain of 11dB.

Rotating these suckers requires quite a bit more grunt and robustness than the average TV tuner from back in the day.

There is nothing on the exam about this as of 2021 so you can delve into this more on your own.

Cubical Quad or Quad for short is a 2 element antenna that fits into a volume of space forming a square tube 1/4λ on a side and of arbitrary length.

They follow the same driver/reflector relationship as the Yagi.

The closed loops of the antenna are mounted parallel to each other on a boom that is parallel to the ground. If the loops are triangular it is known as a Delta loop.

A Delta loop is constructed with full wave driven elements instead of the 1/2 wave of the Yagi. Each leg of the Delta loop is 1/3λ long.

Element to element, the quad exhibits 1.4dB more overall gain than a Yagi of the same length boom and number of elements. A cubical quad has slightly more gain than a 3 element Yagi.

Quads being "3D" are harder to manoeuvre than a "2D" Yagi. The advantage is that you can add smaller quads inside the bigger quad, like nesting Russian dolls, in the same foot print.

Antenna where all the elements are driven to obtain a precision pattern or rotate it electrically rather than physically.

These kinds are widely used in AM broadcast stations where you need to change the pattern at sunset. They are difficult to design for HF frequencies and require considerable real estate.

2 or more half-wave elements placed end to end and fed in phase.

Similar pattern to a dipole but added directivity. You gain more gain as you add elements. 2 elements = 1.6, 3 = 2.6, 4 = 5.2 compared to simple dipole

Better suited for VHF

This works because the impedances match from element to element. These can be fed at the center of any 1/2λ element.

These consist of two 1/2λ radiating elements mounted parallel to each other a 1/2λ apart and driven so their currents are in phase.

If the radiating elements are already collinear, then it's called a broadside array.

A form of Yagi-Uda with all elements being driven

Makes a very broad banded antenna

Each element is slightly shorter than the one before it and resonant at a slightly higher frequency.

This is rather uncommon for amateurs but well loved by the military.

They need a beefy tower to hold up and withstand the nature.

There's literally zillions of antennas!

Used for transmitting circularly polarized electromagnetic waves.

These work in any direction but they are either left or right handed depending on whether the vertical component leads or lags the horizontal component. To work, both transmitting and receiving have to be the same "hand" either left or right.

More common in VHF/UHF because of size.

These are satellite dish antennas

On UHF, the dishes are tiny and allow for crap-loads of gain (40dB or more at microwave frequencies) due to the dish focusing all the signals to the focal point (LNB Low Noise Block down-converter or LNBF Low Noise Block down-converter plus Feedhorn). You see these in use for rural internet.

Fake Antennas. These have resistors that can duplicate a perfect antenna. Use this to tune a transmitter without causing interference.

Bandwidth is reduced by nearby objects and proximity to the ground

Bandwidth is increased by increasing the effective diameter of antenna elements

Bandwidth is proportional to frequency. Ex: half-wave dipole for 80m will have 250 kHz whilst a 20m one will have 1000 kHz.

Bandwidth is the frequency range over which an antenna has a Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) of less than 2:1

At the resonant frequency of the antenna, the SWR will be 1:1. But as you mess with the frequency, SWR will start to increase.

Frequency increases as wavelength decreases

Large metal objects close by an antenna can mess with its resonant frequency. This is why just doing the math and calculations doesn't actually produce an intended result. Certainly will get you close, but there's always this extra antenna voodoo you have to do.

Just get an antenna tuner and move on. This is sooooo ridiculous.

A balanced antenna fed with coax needs a balun. (Bal anced to un balanced).

They function as devices to prevent the changing of an antenna's pattern

Radiation Patterns are often depicted in perfect conditions that never actually exist in the real world.

For a 1/4λ Marconi vertical antenna or a 1/2λ ground mounted dipole the main lobe of the pattern will be on the horizon.

Antennas longer than 1/2λ display extra lobes in the direction of the antenna towards 90^o for ground mounted vertical antennas.

Imperfect ground messes with the patterns

They go on about vehicle antennas. Using a 5/8λ antenna with the extra 1/8λ in a loading coil is the best way to not mess with the antenna pattern.

ANTENNAS ARE NERD-LEVEL AWESOME!

Earn your thrift badge by scrounging a bunch of old crap laying around to make an infinite number of antennas!

Falling off a ladder or tree can end your Amateur career so be careful out there.

Installing Antennas in nice, warm weathers is losers and lesser wimps. Be a real Ham do it till it Hertz at -40^oC in a blizzard! It will definitely hold up year round if and only if you do this.

The exam asks questions about how you would calculate various antenna lengths. The answers you get may not match the exam options exactly but they are close enough to pick the right one. Here's a quick synopsis:

Dipoles:

Yagi Elements:

Quad {Square} Elements:

Delta {Triangle} Loop:

We will be discussing Semi-Conductors

Atoms in a semi-conductor are packed together in a crystal lattice.

Semiconductors really only conduct electricity when they are heated up. When at room temp, they act as an insulator.

Pure silicon semiconductors need to have an impurity added so that more valence (outside/movable) electrons can be added or removed. This is called doping.

Doped semiconductors can be made to conduct current more easily because of the extra electrons. Likewise, if there is an electron shortage, electrons can fall into the holes that remain.

Doped Semiconductors called extrinsic semiconductors are:

N-Type: extra valence electrons in the dopant. Electron is the primary charge carrier.

P-Type: missing valence electron in the dopant. Hole is the primary charge carrier.

Negative (extra electrons) and Positive (missing electrons)

Cathodes and Anodes form when N and P types come together

This is called a PN junction, aka a barrier layer. It's ultra thin, 0.01mm. It has barrier potential because there is a tiny amount of internal voltage (0.3 volts in germanium, 0.7 in silicon).

Current can flow if we connect a battery with its positive terminal connected to the P-Type and negative terminal connected to the N-Type.

If you do this backwards, it doesn't really work and you only get the very small leakage current (I_L) flowing.

This is a Diode - a valve that only allows current to flow in one direction. Diode means 2 electrodes.

You can fry a diode either way with too much current so don't be a dunce.

Kinds of Diodes in this study guide:

Controlling current in a circuit is done in 2 ways. 1) Turning it off and on. This is a binary/digital circuit.

2) Transistors. This is short for transfer resistor

PNP and NPN are the 2 kinds of transistors

An electronic circuit that produces gain is called amplification.

There's a bunch of super complicated stuff written in here but I don't care about learning it.

Audio frequency or AF amplifiers are used to amplify AC signals from about 20Hz to 20kHz

Radio frequency or RF amps are used for signals higher than this.

Important safety parameters for Transistors are:

Heat sinks come to the rescue for many high power applications

The IC is probably the most important electronic development lately

This is a small, thin wafer of silicon to which transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors are connected. This can number in the millions and billions of transistors!

Scale: makes this possible

Substrate provides uniformity for characteristic over temps and voltages

Reliability is enhanced because the internal conditions of the integrated circuit are controlled in bulk and variance is limited.

Cost is less with integrated circuits

Welcome to 19-diggidy-5! This is all obsolete tech but some old scrounging Amateur will most definitely have some of these. LOL!

Just watch the following videos. They will tell you everything you actually need to care about.

These sections are just final jibber jabber.

The diagrams above will give you all the answers for the test questions on vacuum tubes. The only other question is "Why you might use a triode vacuum tube instead of a transistor" and the answer is: It may be able to handle higher power

And that a FET is most similar semiconductor to a vacuum tube

Virtually all amateur equipment runs on DC power

Here's a table of info!

The point is, these voltage requirements can't be met by house hold AC power

AC converted to DC makes the DC ripple with periodic variations in the voltage from the original AC input. The DC must be filtered get rid o' ripple!

Also, the DC must remain constant or regulated.

The magic box that does all this and more is called a Power Supply. It is a converter that makes the DC for radio happy, happy, happy! Here's a flow chart:

Transformers (more than meets the eye) step-up or step-down input voltage

Output voltage is determined by the turns ratio of the transformer.

There's a formula where you can calculate this. Weeee! Who is actually going to build their own power supply? And if you are, you're not reading this. Lol!

Large currents require large transformers with large cores and heavy-gauge wire in the windings to avoid heat damage.

Calculating Power Needs: If you have a 20A HF transceiver at 13.8V DC, you remember that Power = E x I. Power = 13.8 x 20 or 276W. So you round up to 300W for the power supply you need. Just like all of life, bigger is always better when it comes to power supplies. Ting!

Here's an example of a bench power supply:

The actual change to DC is called rectification. This is done by silicon diodes acting as one-way valves.

They can do this either by half-wave (rectifying only the positive or negative half of the AC cycle) or full-wave (rectifying the whole thing).

Half-wave produces very rough DC and requires more filtering than full. Half is ok for small current requirements. It's cheap and simple.

Full-wave uses another diode to pass the missing cycle to the output (so it's not as lossy as half-wave). The negative dip of the AC wave is inverted so it will add energy to the positive output and pretty much passes all the AC wave energy to the DC output.

The Full-wave rectifier is 2 half-wave rectifiers operating on opposite polarities of the AC cycle

This can be notated as 12 V-0-12 V. The entire secondary from both ends would produce 24V. Also, could be shown as a 24V CT (centre tapped) type.

A full-wave bridge rectifier uses 4 diodes and gets rid of the centre tapped thing.

You can filter the circuit with a capacitor. The capacitor "fills in the ripples" and smooths it out when the voltage falls.

If the capacitor starts to fail, you will start to pick up AC hum when you transmit.

The filtered output from the rectifier is nearly pure DC

Poorly regulated power supplies can result in a small initial frequency change that will change the pitch. This is annoying in CW transmissions and is called chirp.

Buying a power supply from this century avoids almost everything this section has been talking about. But if you still wanna do it 'till it Hertz when you build your power supply in a cave from scraps - just like Tony Stark - then you should have a voltmeter and ammeter installed on your home brew power supply!

Voltmeters are always hooked up in parallel with the output terminals

DC Ammeters (measures amps) are normally placed in series with the positive terminal.

None of this is on the test.

Radio is super fun and you can do lots. With great power comes great responsibility. When Spider-Man is operating Ham radio on HF or VHF+, he also tends to operate on FM (Frequency Modulation), SSB (single side band) and CW (continuous wave telegraphy or Morse code). He might also use SSTV (Slow Scan Television) or fast scan television, also known as ATV - Amateur Television.

Basic Qualification restricts you to the use of commercially built transmitters or assembling professionally produced kits. Building your own is not an option. You can build other things if you're a hardcore ham.

You can buy new equipment online. Or at stores. Or used stuff.

You need a closet or a place to put all your radio crap.

You need a 120VAC/15A outlet. A Transmission line. A place for your antenna. Proper station grounding (talked more about in Chapter 16)

The basic setup for a first time amateur. You'll have a combo transmitter/receiver, power supply, microphone.

Or just buy a 2m Handheld radio. Works swell for business trips and is a great alternative to watching TV in your hotel room whilst away from your shack.

All mode transceivers are pretty expensive compared to a basic FM-only rig. Author's advice is buy separate units for HF and VHF/UHF. This approach probably makes sense as not all of your eggs are in the same basket.

2m VHF is the most popular band.

Simplex: direct communication between 2 stations/ham operators

Repeater: a tower that increases your transmission coverage by picking up your signal as input and then outputting it on another frequency 600 kHz above or below the input frequency. This difference is called offset.

Some repeaters require you also set a sub-audible access tone that is transmitted with your signal each time. This done auto-magically by all modern rigs. But if you want to build your own, you just have to catch a Red-Breasted House Finch and then vigorously squeeze it through a variegated vacuum tube every time you key up the radio.

Repeater Directories list all the repeaters in your area, the offsets and if the tone is required. You can download these from the App/Play stores on your smart phone.

PTT is Push To Talk, as in push a button to talk like on a walkie-talkie. VOX is Voice-Operated Transmission like a voice-detected speaker phone. VOX is voodoo to repeaters so don't use it for that.

When you operate, you speak or you listen. This is called half duplex operation. This is different from a phone call which is full duplex. A dual-band receiver would allow you to transmit on 2m and receive on 70cm for example.

The shack is the room where are your radio stuff is. #RadioShack

HF equipment is larger and needs more supporting devices than VHF/UHF stuff.

These days people have combo units for transmitting and receiving. Buying newer solid-state stuff is recommended.

Solid-state requires antenna matching to not fry the output transistors. But this is done with the previously mentioned antenna tuner. Many newer rigs have the antenna tuner built in.

QRP rigs for HF are low-power transmitters. These have an output of less than 10W even down to less than 1W! This is a fairly tricky feat left up to more experienced amateurs.

The LPF reduces harmonic output of an HF transmitter and eliminate spurious emissions from transmitters operating below 30MHz

This component was needed more so when tubes were the norm.

Harmonics are signals whose frequency is a whole number multiple of the primary frequency you are generating. Ex: 21.050MHz has a third harmonic frequency of 63.150MHz. You only want your intended signal to go out lest it cause interference

Side Notes on "Filters" in general: They are just capacitors! See more in Section 15.3 for the different kinds of filters

This may also be called a SWR Meter or a VSWR Bridge/Meter

It allows the user to monitor how much power is being put out to the antenna and how much is being reflected back to the transmitter. Most modern rigs do this automatically.

Most antenna tuners also have this built in

Allows for ease in switching to antennas in your setup. You need this unless you only ever operate on one band.

The component provides a static ground to all the antennas that are not in use. Lighting could fry this, so good practice is to disconnect the antennas from the switch whilst not being used.

The advantage of the switch besides convenience is that only 1 run of coax is needed to run up an antenna tower.

The ATU is also known as transmatch, antenna coupler, antenna matching unit, match box or just tuner. Tuner it is.

The Tuner matches the impedance of your transceiver to the antenna system.

It's a vital component for modern solid-state rigs unless you are an über-nerd who has accurately matched antennas for each band and do not operate on 160m, 80m or 40m HF bands.

At 14MHz and above, if the antenna is resonant in the middle of the band, the SWR doesn't vary much across the bandwidth. But perhaps 10m might. Why? Because the Wizards and Warlocks of 10m don't play by the rules. That's why.

The less resonant an antenna is, the worse of a time the tuner has. There will be large circulating currents and high voltages present internally.

This is for when you want to operate the transmitter without actually putting signal on the air during tuning and testing.

You can have this setup as an option at the switch.

You can fry these components if they aren't rated for the power you are sending it. As always, bigger is better.

Whilst not in the diagram above, a tower is good.

You gotta have an antenna. It is a vital component of any shack.

Everyone starts with a cheap home-made dipole then work up as interests develop.

All the components are linked together with coax. Buy the best.

At one time you could have gotten a phone patch and connected the transmission path via phone. But this is a dinosaur component due to the invention of the Information Super Highway!

Operating VHF/UHF is easy. Pick channel, set offset for a repeater, and transmit.

Squelch is a circuit that blanks the receiver unless there is a signal to receive. This cuts out the radio "white noise."

Learning from an experienced ham is probably the best option.

As mentioned before, this is hands free radio operation. Instead of pushing the button, voice detection kicks on and off.

Background noise can kick it on though too making it super annoying. Best use case would be in a quiet room by yourself.

In this and the following sections, it makes more sense just to read the manual for your particular equipment.

They reference stuff they haven't yet talked about which has been the cardinal sin of this entire study guide.

LOL!

Before tuning, you need to check the frequency you intend to transmit on. You have to identify yourself with you call sign legally before and after the transmission.

Again, anything modern will have meters to measure all of this. Any old tube stuff, you just have to spend your 2 quarters on penny whistles and moon pies.

Most transceivers from 1995 on have extremely stable frequency synthesizers. They don't need to be manually adjusted due to the magical frequency reference crystal.

This is for operating Morse code.

This kind of operation existed before voice communication was possible. It's the grand-daddy of all radio communications.

A Morse code hand key is really just a binary switch transmitter. It's ON-OFF for various lengths of time.

An innovation in CW keys was called the bug. It was a special high speed, mechanical, semi-automatic key made by Vibroplex^TM since 1945. Still Available Here: www.vibroplex.com

Computers/Digital made 2 more iterations possible: Non-Iambic and Iambic.

Non-Iambic has a horizontal paddle. One way for dots, the other way for dashes.

Iambic has 2 paddles, one for dots, one for dashes.

If you want to learn Morse code, the best way is to treat it like learning any other language. The following video is the best I found:

Building on Morse as a digital communication method, more methods such as packet radio, AMTOR and PSK31 arose which rely on computers.

This is discussed further in Chapter 12.

These technologies required a MODEM (MO dulator DEM odulator).

PSK31 used a computer's sound card.

Microphones convert sound energy into electrical energy.

Frequency Response: 20Hz-20kHz is the max range the human ear can detect and this declines as people age. Most/All microphones roll in this range.

Sensitivity: may vary depending on the direction the sound approaches the microphone. If you turn your mouth away from the microphone like a total dunce, you'll have a crappier result.

Directional Qualities: these are omnidirectional or directional. Omni is picking up from all directions. Directional mics reject more ambient noise in favour of one or 2 directions

Impedance: Matching to the transmitter is key. Again, anything modern will be done for you and why wouldn't you???

Kinds of Microphones: Crystal, Dynamic, Condenser/Electrostatic, Carbon. These are mainly all old-timey things.

Speakers do the opposite of microphones. They convert electrical energy back to sound energy. This will all be alleviated once Elon Musk makes all humans into cyborg robots. Think of the savings not having to convert electrical energy back and forth!

Having an experienced amateur to guide the noob will be helpful when starting out.

Q-Codes or Q-Signals were developed as short hand communications (like CB 10-codes). These codes overcome international language barriers as well.

Q-Codes ending with a question mark are interpreted as questions. Otherwise the Code stands as a statement/answer.

Etiquette suggests using Q-Codes only when you need to (comms are difficult/sketchy conditions)

For the following charts, the format is:

Q-codes have taken on a life of their own in many ways. Ex: a contact with another station is QSO.

Post-card like confirmations of contacts are known as QSL cards and are shipped around the world via the QSL Bureau system. (People collect these cards like coins or stamps)

Q-Codes are normally used on CW and digital comms and not on voice transmissions.

RESOURCE: The only Q Codes on the Exam

Standard procedure is to use the phonetic alphabet to announce your call sign and whatever else is necessary to complete a communication

Numbers also have special pronunciations:

To avoid any confusion, before listing number in a voice call you can say the word figures. Ex: "I am looking for a charlie echo bravo FIGURES foe-wer fy-yiv six seven"

When in emergency situations, don't forget to be SAD!

Security: think before speaking, use prowords (below) and be brief

Accuracy: Speak clearly and RSVP

• R = Rhythm: Use adequate pauses
  
• S = Speed: Slower than usual conversation (like when talking to Manitobans)
  
• V = Volume: Speak directly into the microphone
  
• P = Pitch: Pitch your voice at a higher level than normal
  

Discipline: Listen before you speak, use RSVP, be brief

Here are common prowords:

VHF/UHF is good for local comms and frees up HF for long distance comms.

HF Comms can be tuned in the receiver up and down using a VFO Variable Frequency Oscillator. Not needed in VHF/UHF

Capture Effect is when FM signals overlap. Only the dominant/stronger signal will be heard. This is why critical/safety radio services like aircraft radios still use SSB or AM. These signals can overlap and you can still hear the weaker signal, unlike FM.

As discussed previously, repeaters input your signal and output it again.

For outputs above 147MHz, the input of the repeater is 600kHz above the output. This is a positive offset

For outputs below 147MHz, it's 600kHz below. Negative offset

There are exceptions to these rules. Just get the repeater book app for your phone.

Repeaters called machines, are often on high hills or buildings. Etiquette says that if you use a repeater frequently, you should pay your dues to the local club/owner.

Repeaters cost money to operate and that money comes from club dues. Travelling and using repeaters is fine.

If a repeater is being used and you need in you can break in.

In an emergency, you can always break in with "BREAK BREAK VE5JO WITH EMERGENCY TRAFFIC"

The 5 Commandments of Repeater Use: (from VE3PUE Neil Herber in the November 1992 issue of The Canadian Amateur

• 1) Use Common Sense: don't interrupt others.
  
• 2) Be Courteous: Courteous repeater users will pause every once in a while to let others in if need be
  
• 3) The word "BREAK" is for emergency use only. If you want to jump into a conversation, just uses your call sign
  
• 4) If you hear someone having difficulty/bad operating practices, don't cut them off. Calmly offer assistance.
  
• 5) Always identify yourself with your call sign
  

The 5 stupid things Not to Do:

• 5) Saying we whilst you are alone
  
• 4) Saying you have destinated when you have actually arrived (destinated ain't in the dictionary)
  
• 3) Using Q-codes rather than talking like a normal human being
  
• 2) Saying Yeah, Roger every time you start speaking
  
• 1) Repeating everything you say on a perfectly clear transmission. Ex: "Yeah, roger, roger, we have destinated Fred, we have destinated!"
  

As all un-encrypted radio communications are OPEN TO ANYONE LISTENING (as are ALL emails, text messages, and social media posts):

• Do not give your telephone number, address, credit card, serial number, whether you are susceptible to any diseases, vacation plans or personal information over the air
  
• Don't be a potty mouth. Being a Cussing-Colter or a Swearing-Sam is frowned upon.
  

As mentioned before

Simplex (direct comms between users) is preferred to repeater use.

Rule o' thumb: Listen to the input frequency of the repeater. If you can hear the station you have been working through the repeater on the repeater input frequency, then just use simplex instead.

Lol, I can't believe this is a subsection. You literally say your call sign and the person you are calling says theirs and yours as the response.

Here's more repeater information illogically placed here and not in the previous repeater sections

Some repeaters in addition to offset have to use a sub-audible tone known as CTCSS - Continuous Tone Coded Squelch System

These tones are added to prevent bringing up multiple repeaters at the same time

You can try to call a friend via the repeater. If you don't get an answer, you can rag-chew your heart out with anyone who answers. You can say CALLSIGN is monitoring (where CALLSIGN is YOUR callsign!)

There will be a distinctive kerchunk sound a few seconds after your stop transmitting. This is squelch tail. Repeaters may also send a courtesy tone after a station stops transmitting. This tone indicates the timer is reset and another station can start transmitting. There is a time limit on the repeater to prevent people hogging it all day.

You can use the word clear at the end of your transmission to indicate you are done using the repeater.

If you are using the radio, you are required by ISED to give your call sign every 30 mins and at the beginning and end of every contact.

A device connected to the repeater that connects to a telephone line. The operator can make a telephone call through a repeater. This is not for casual use. To use it you key up with "CALLSIGN for the patch." All other users should step aside and allow that communication through.

Accessing the auto-patch is done via a series of tones from a keypad. You have to be a magical wizard to know these tones.

Now that cell phones are owned by 2 year olds, phone patch stuff is nearly all but gone.

Internet Radio Linking Project is the marriage of computers, repeaters and the internet developed by Dave Cameron VE7LTD in 1998

This system allows you to use a 2m mobile radio and chat with someone on the other side of the globe as you select your destination repeater location using a 4-digit code on your transceiver keypad.

You can learn more about it at https://www.amateur-radio-wiki.net/irlp/

EchoLink uses streaming audio technology for world-wide comms. Learn more at http://echolink.org

HF is not as cut and dry as VHF/UHF. There's lots of interference and you might have to QSY (change bands)

Using Morse code is magical. Everyone should do it. Go to http://www.arrl.org/w1aw-operating-schedule

To start on a frequency, give a QRL? q-signal to see if anyone using it responds.

There is a lot of information in this section. I don't really care about morse code operations that much.

The convention is to use lower side band on 160m, 80m and 40m and use upper side band for 20m, 15m and 10m bands.

This method of communication is utterly asinine.

There are contests in the amateur radio hobby!

All of digital is either 1 or 0. It's on/off binary communication.

Computers make it possible to process those 1s and 0s very quickly

The basic flow chart is data comes from a file or keyboard as a string of digits. Digital signal is converted into analog which is sent through the transmitter.

Digital modes have real advantages over analog.

• employ waveforms with a narrow bandwidth thus conserving it
  
• work well when there's lots of interference
  
• have automatic error correction
  
• you can save, print text, send or receive files
  
• all of this is a lower power endeavour
  

In the coming years, the bulk of all Amateur comms will be digitally coded

Baud! You remember baud modems from the internet of 1997, right?! Of course you do! 2400 baud is a data transmission rate of 9600 bits/second!

This is the oldest of all Amateur digital modes going back to 1940s when Teletype® equipment was invented.

The alphabet used 5-bit groups so only 32 unique characters are possible

This is ancient stuff.

Canadian Doug Lockhart VE7APU is the Father of Packet Radio

Packet is computer-to-computer communication via radio

Packet data was gathered until the carriage return character was encountered. Then the data was bundled with control and routing info called a packet. This required a special device called a TNC Terminal Node Controller. It was originally hardware but is now software.

Packet is advantageous over RTTY because many stations can share a frequency. The actual transmission is quick and goes to a specific station.

Repeaters for this are called digipeaters

Automatic Packet Reporting System is a real-time digital system that marries packet to GPS (Global Positioning System)

TOR is the Teleprinting Over Radio and uses 2 modes: AMTOR and PACTOR.

AMTOR: is Amateur Teleprinting Over Radio and was developed by Peter Martinez G3PLX

PACTOR: this is faster than AMTOR.

These are all "ancient" digital innovations applied to radio.

Another digital-esque mode.

Digital signal processing via a computer sound card invented by Lionel Sear G3PPT

Multiple Frequency Shift Keyring

HF Digital mode invented by European and British Govs in mid 1900s.

Originally called Piccolo due to the high-pitched tones it makes

HF Mode for high performance keyboard to keyboard conversational operation.

Based on DSP Digital Signal Processing.

Invented in 1929 as a mechanical printer system

Weak Signal Propagation Reporting or Whisper

World Wide network of low power transmitter/receivers uploading info they hear to a website allowing you to map where your signal is in real time

Signals are transmitted using FSK with a very small shift and very slow rate. Fits into 6Hz of bandwidth.

Packets contain sending station's call sign, grid locator and power in dBm.

Another incarnation of MFSK

Primary feature is possible DX communication when the bands seem dead

Transmissions are SSB signals and all use the same frequency

FT4 is a contest mode and is twice as fast as FT8

There's loads of digital modes. Here's more:

• MSK144 (used for meteor scatter communication)
  
• JT6M
  
• JT65
  
• JT9
  
• EME Echo
  

The JT comes from the inventor, Joe Taylor K1JT.

Computers are our friends and digital is swell!

For more info, check this link out: WSJT Software and Operating Manual

TV also exists in Amateur land!

SSTV is an attempt to make wide band TV signal fit into a narrow band HF SSB phone channel.

Usually known as ATV (Amateur Television) and uses 5MHz of bandwidth running on UHF and above

Antennas are small and horizontally polarized

This mode still sucks, just like Slow Scan TV

I can't imagine anyone actually using this technology today, not even for fun. Lol

Not only does ham radio involve all this riveting electronic crapola, you can also earn your hoarder's badge by collecting QSL cards!

These are actual printed cards like a postcard that you collect from people you've met in radio land.

These nerds even had an outgoing QSL Bureau - a members-only service, that took a whole year for the cards to arrive!

Alternatively, you could use QSL-Direct (((Snail Mail!))), including a self-addressed stamped envelope.

Because it is now #CurrentYear, you can do all this on-the-line. For instance the LOGBOOK OF THE WORLD!!! or eQsl!

QSL Cards normally contain the following info:

• Call sign of the station worked
  
• Mode (SSB, AM, CW, RTTY, etc)
  
• Date in YYYY-MM-DD standardized format
  
• Time in UTC
  
• Signal Report in RS(T) format
  
• Frequency/Band used
  
• Call Sign and location of the originating station at time o' contact
  

Logging all your contacts and transmissions adds to the enjoyment and mystique of ham radio!

However you do this, make it all consistent. Good records have the added benefit of diagnosing EMI/RFI issues

Logs and QSL cards are ALWAYS kept in UTC (Universal Time Coordinated). This used to be called GMT (Greenwich Mean Time), named for Greenwich, England the site of the Prime Meridian (the imaginary line that runs from the North to South Pole)

Time is always presents a problem. "Local time" in Saskatchewan is not the same as "local time" in New York. Hence, the creation of a standardized system of keeping time.

To calculate UTC, use the internet. But if that fails you convert your local AM/PM time into 24 Hour format (military time) and add a time amount for your time zone. Here's the quick chart and an example:

Ex: 6PM EST = 1800 + EST (5) = 2300 UTC

Azimuthal or Planar projection maps are helpful.

You can determine the shortest distance to any point on earth from your location and the compass bearing of the point relative to your location.

This helps you find the best heading for your antenna if you want to work a particular geographical area. This is known as short path heading. If you point it the opposite way, that's called long path heading.

Ex: a country has a 31^o short path, then it has 31 + 180 = 211^o long path.

A net is much like an early internet user/discussion group. A Net Control Station (NCS) [like a Chat room admin] will announce that a net is open and available for people to check in via call sign. The use of a frequency for this purpose is "informal" with no reservation needed.

Here are the triage guidelines:

• Distress: vessel or aircraft threatened with grave/immediate danger. The expression is MAYDAY and is reserved for true emergencies only and is repeated 3 times. It is illegal to do this fraudulently.
  
• Urgency: Less dire than Distress where the safety of a person, vehicle, airplane, residence is threatened. The expression is PAN-PAN repeated 3 times.
  
• Security: Primarily for warning about aids to navigation and weather warnings. The expression is SECURITY pronounced "securitay" and repeated 3 times.
  

Canadian Forces Affiliate Radio System sponsored by National Defence Headquarters. It's a partnership/assistance program where hams provide auxiliary comms to military. Check out This website for more info.

Military Auxiliary Radio System is the USA version.

These are rewards for hams who do it till it hertz. Learn more at http://www.arrl.org/dxcc

Pure radio waves do not convey information. They have to be MOdulated and DEModulated (Modem) to carry info.

A Transmitter generates and amplifies a radio frequency carrier and then modulates this carrier wave with information.

The frequency, phase or amplitude of the carrier is changed by the modulating wave.

Telegraphy is turning a signal on and off in a known sequence.

As previously discussed, this is CW or continuous wave. It's the dominion of morse code. The wave isn't altered in form, but turned on and off (precursor to digital comms)

CW doesn't use much bandwidth compared to others. You only need 150-500Hz of frequency separation to minimize interference from other transmissions. 3kHz is needed for SSB and 6kHz for AM.

CW can get through when voice comms may be garbled

Amplitude: When we change the amplitude to carry info we recover it by comparing the received amplitude to the peak amplitude of the wave.

Frequency: number of cycles of the wave that pass a given point in a second.

Phase: relative time that the wave reaches its maximum or minimum amplitude as compared to a fixed eternal reference.

Frequency and Phase are intrinsically linked and cannot be changed independently from each other.

There is a base/carrier wave that is then combined with the modulated data you are trying to send, like a human voice transmission. Both of these signals are sent from the transmitter at the same time. The receiver then decodes this on the other end.

AM adds power to the transmitter carrier power. This additional power is carried in the side bands located above and below the carrier.

The power of each side band is 1/4 power of the carrier wave. The frequencies in the sidebands are the sum and difference of the carrier and the modulating frequencies.

The upper and lower sidebands carry duplicate information

This is not as clean as the diagram suggests as the analog signal is constantly changing and susceptible to many forms of amplitude fluctuation that cause interference in the AM signal.

Removing/suppressing the carrier signal results in what's called double sideband suppressed carrier (DSSC) or just DSB.

To conserve spectrum, you can remove one of the sidebands from the signal as one side is redundant. This is single sideband suppressed carrier (SSBSC) or just SSB.

SSB stations can operate on adjacent frequencies when separated by ~3kHz.

Trade off is complexity in the modulator and demodulator.

Computer software has been generating SSB since the mid 1990s using a technique called DSP or Digital Signal Processing.

FM conceptually is the same is AM except you change the frequency instead of the amplitude.

Amateurs in the VHF and UHF range use narrow band FM (NBFM) with a max deviation of 5kHz. The max modulating frequency should be limited to about 3 kHz. Commercial FM stations have a 50kHz deviation.